Accelerator-driven Systems (ADS) and Fast Reactors (FR) in Advanced Nuclear Fuel Cycles
The long-term hazard of radioactive wastes arising from nuclear energy production is a matter of continued discussion and public concern in many countries. By the use of partitioning and transmutation (P&T) of the actinides and some of the long-lived fission products, the radiotoxicity of the high-level waste (HLW) and, possibly, the safety requirements for its geologic disposal can be reduced compared with the current once-through fuel cycle. To make the technologically complex enterprise worthwhile, a reduction in the HLW radiotoxicity by a factor of at least one hundred is desirable. This requires very effective reactor and fuel cycle strategies, including fast reactors (FRs) and/or accelerator-driven, sub-critical systems. The accelerator-driven system (ADS) has recently been receiving increased attention due to its potential to improve the flexibility and safety characteristics of transmutation systems.
The present study compares FR- and ADS-based actinide transmutation systems with respect to reactor properties, fuel cycle requirements, economic aspects, and R&D needs. The essential differences between the various systems are evaluated with the help of a number of representative "fuel cycle schemes". The strategies investigated include an evolutionary transmutation strategy in which the ADS provides additional flexibility by enabling plutonium utilisation in conventional reactors and confining the minor actinides to a small part of the fuel cycle, and two innovative transuranics (TRU) burning strategies, with an FR or an ADS, in which plutonium and minor actinides are managed together to minimise the proliferation risk. A novelty in the present study is that the analyses are carried out in a consistent manner using reactor and fuel cycle parameters which have been agreed upon by international experts.
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Table of contents
Foreword (52 kb)
Executive summary (133 kb)
Note de synthèse (139 kb)
1. Introduction (310 kb)
- 1.1 Nuclear energy development in the past and objectives for the future
- 1.2 Fuel cycle options and paths to the future
- 1.3 Transmutation and role of ADS
- 1.3.1 Principle and benefit of transmutation
- 1.3.2 Actinide transmutation
- 1.3.3 Fission product transmutation
- 1.4 The ADS concept
- 1.5 Framework for the present study
2. Transmutation strategies (34 kb)
- 2.1 Introduction
- 2.2 Radiotoxicity and long-term risk of high-level waste
- 2.3 Goals for actinide mass reduction and fuel losses
- 2.3.1 Actinide mass reduction
- 2.3.2 Fuel losses in the reprocessing
- 2.4 Reactor requirements in fully closed fuel cycles
- 2.4.1 Neutron balance of equilibrium core
- 2.4.2 Core design constraints
- 2.5 Transmutation performance in fully closed fuel cycles
- 2.5.1 Transmutation effectiveness
- 2.5.2 Radiotoxicity reduction
- 2.6 Actinide transmutation strategies
- 2.7 Comparison of nuclear fuel cycle schemes
- 2.7.1 Characteristics of the schemes
- 2.7.2 Resource efficiency and environmental friendliness
- 2.7.3 Consequences for the fuel cycle
- 2.8 Transient phases in nuclear energy scenarios
- 2.8.1 Time constants in transient scenarios
- 2.8.2 Role of ADS in the shut-down phase
- 2.9 Fission product transmutation
3. Comparative analysis (310 kb)
- 3.1 Principal fuel cycle schemes
- 3.1.1 Basis for the selection
- 3.1.2 Reactor and fuel cycle characteristics
- 3.2 Comparative assessment
- 3.2.1 Calculation methods
- 3.2.2 Equilibrium core characteristics
- 3.2.3 Actinide waste production
- 3.2.4 Radiotoxicity reduction
- 3.2.5 Long-term risk
- 3.2.6 Consequences for the fuel cycle
- 3.3 Other fuel cycle schemes
- 3.3.1 TRU burning with preceding MOX recycling
- 3.3.2 Heterogeneous recycling of americium and curium
- 3.4 Fuel cycle issues and challenges
- 3.4.1 Fuel and target fabrication and behaviour
- 3.4.2 Reprocessing techniques
- 3.4.3 Secondary wastes arising in fuel cycle schemes
- 3.4.4 Depleted and reprocessed irradiated uranium
- 3.5 Conclusions
4. Accelerator-driven System (ADS) and Fast Reactor (FR) technologies (414 kb)
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Common grounds of ADS and FR technology
- 4.2.1 History and current status of existing FR technology
- 4.2.2 Current trends in FR technology development
- 4.2.3 P&T-related specific aspects of fuels and coolants
- 4.3 ADS technology
- 4.3.1 Introduction
- 4.3.2 Sub-critical reactor aspects
- 4.3.3 Spallation target technology
- 4.3.4 Accelerator technology
- 4.4 Conclusions
5. Fast Reactor (FR) and Accelerator-driven System (ADS) safety (268 kb)
- 5.1 Safety functions and strategies for fissioning systems
- 5.1.1 Cardinal safety functions for fissioning systems
- 5.1.2 Safety strategies
- 5.1.3 Definition of the subset of ADS considered
- 5.2 ADS design features that affect safety
- 5.2.1 Design principles for an ADS burning minor actinide or transuranics
- and resulting features
- 5.2.2 Summary of salient features for ADS TRU and MA burners
- 5.2.3 Optimising the support ratio
- 5.2.4 Overview of safety-related issues attendant specifically to ADS design features
- 5.2.5 Guide to location of detailed discussions of safety approach
- 5.3 Strategies related to operational safety for FR & ADS systems
- 5.3.1 Effects of fertile-free fuel and fast neutron spectrum in ADS
- 5.3.2 Heat removal in ADS; effects of coolant choice
- 5.3.3 Sub-delayed critical operating state; dynamics
- 5.3.4 Spallation neutron source and beam tube effects
- 5.4 Containment, shielding, and decay heat removal
- 5.4.1 Proton beam tube penetration of containment barriers
- 5.4.2 Refuelling and shielding
- 5.4.3 Decay heat removal
- 5.4.4 Containment loading criteria; HCDA termination
- 5.4.5 ATWS initiators; passive versus engineered safety approach
- 5.4.6 Activation products
- 5.4.7 Propagation of local faults
- 5.5 Safety in fuel cycle facilities
- 5.6 Conclusions
6. Cost analysis of P&T (273 kb)
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Nuclear fuel cycle model
- 6.2.1 Equilibrium NFC analysis
- 6.2.2 Unit cost data-base
- 6.3 Results
- 6.3.1 Point-of-departure case
- 6.3.2 Parametric system analysis
- 6.4 Summary conclusions
7. R&D needs (34 kb)
- 7.1 Introduction
- 7.2 Technology goals for P&T, and especially ADS development
- 7.3 Perceived R&D needs in the short to medium-term
- 7.3.1 Nuclear data and neutronic calculations
- 7.3.2 Materials research
- 7.3.3 Reprocessing research
- 7.3.4 Technology development
- 7.4 Conclusions
8. Fission product transmutation (124 kb)
- 8.1 Introduction
- 8.2 Fission product transmutation
- 8.3 Conclusions
9. Alternative actinide transmutation approaches (34 kb)
- 9.1 Introduction
- 9.2 Transmutation systems using thermal neutrons
- 9.2.1 ADS and reactors with liquid or quasi-liquid fuel
- 9.2.2 Modular helium reactor and accelerator-driven transmuter with a particle
- bed fuel - MHR and MHA
- 9.3 Conclusions
10. Conclusions (79 kb)
- 10.1 Introduction
- 10.2 General conclusions
- 10.3 Technical conclusions
- 10.3.1 Role of ADS in actinide transmutation strategies
- 10.3.2 Fuel cycle technology
- 10.3.3 ADS technology and safety
- 10.3.4 Cost of actinide transmutation
- 10.3.5 Fission product transmutation
- 10.3.6 R&D needs
References (34 kb)
Annexes
Annex A. List of Expert Group members (52 kb)
Annex B. Acronyms (61 kb)
Annex C. History of P&T studies in OECD/NEA Member countries and international organisations (87 kb)
Annex D. Dose conversion factors based on ICRP-1990 Recommendations (56 kb)
Annex E. Comparison of MA transmutation effectiveness in different fuels and coolant systems (113 kb)
Annex F. Overview of national and international ADS programmes (612 kb)
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